Charles Darwin s Theory Of Natural Selection - 1399 Words

Introduction Evolution is defined as a genetic change in a population that is inherited over several generations (thoughtco). Charles Darwin’s theory clearly state that evolution occurs by natural selection. Darwin published a book in 1859 on the origin of species. In the book Darwin talks about the philosophy of natural selection. Natural selection is when a group of species show variation in their physical characters. This is because of the difference in their gene. Charles Darwin proposed that natural selection acts to preserve accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations (Darwin’s-theory-of-evolution). Evolution can also happen when genes are being transferred from one population to another (palomar.edu/anthro/synthetic/synth),†¦show more content†¦The new colony that has formed is separated from the original population and the same alleles may not be present in the same frequencies as it was in the new colony. The difference between the founder effect and the bottle neck effect is that the both occur in different mechanisms as the founder effect is more of colonisation rather that a catastrophe. The figure below is a great example of how the founder effect occurs. In the figure a population is made up of equal numbers of circles and squares forming a large population, however some of the squares and circles (organisms) later split into different colonies. Second paragraph: Genetic diversity is really important as it helps keep the health and number of a population, by including alleles that can help in resisting diseases or any other defects. Keeping genetic diversity helps the population maintain its strength even if a change occurs, making it able to adapt to new changes easier and faster. In a situation where natural disasters occur, having genetic diversity would be great as it could mean the survival of the population (genetic-diversity-and-evolution). If there wasn’t genetic diversity amongst a population it would create a vulnerability within the species as it allows them to be susceptible to any change in the environment, making it is almost certain that they might leadShow MoreRelatedCharles Darwin And Darwin s Theory Of Natural Selection1489 Words   |  6 Pagesbaffled to discover that this species has been completely altered. This outcome is a direct result of a ubiquitous phenomenon theorized by none other than Charles Darwin, a pr estigious naturalist and biologist. This venerable man was able to unveil many revelations regarding variability through the development of his theory of natural selection (Darwin and Huxley xii). Having an inherent adoration toward nature as a young child likely provided a significant incentive. Though Darwin’s thesis is not immaculateRead MoreCharles Darwin s Theory Of Natural Selection Essay1707 Words   |  7 PagesWhen Charles Darwin first developed his theory of Natural selection, he discovered that â€Å"Individuals in populations vary their â€Å"heritable† traits† (Leicht and McAllister, 2006. p. 157). And that â€Å"if a particular inherited trait confers a higher likelihood of survival and reproduction, individuals with that trait will leave more offspring than other individuals in the population† (Leicht and McAllister, 2006. p.157). With this in mind, during project 3 we took pooled data of the entire class in orderRead MoreCharles Darwin s Theory Of Natural Selection2372 Words   |  10 PagesCharles Darwin in his theory of natural selection said â€Å" the fittest of the fittest will survive,† and year after year China has proven they are the fittest by climbing the economic ladder, as Mark Schwartz Vice Chairman of Goldman Sachs and Chairman of Golden Sachs Asia Pacific, claims in his speech â€Å"China’s Economic Success and Opportunities,† â€Å"China is coming out of a period of rapid growth almost ten percent over the last thirty (30) years. In 2013 China’s gross domestic product (GDP) was 9Read MoreCharles Darwin s Theory Of Evolution And Natural Selection2114 Words   |  9 PagesCharles Darwin Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, on February 12, 1809. He died on April 19, 1882 in Kent, England (Biography.com Editors). Charles Darwin brought many revolutionary visions to the world of science, including evolution. Charles Darwin was an English naturalist and geologist. He is best known for his theory of evolution, and natural selection. Darwin learned most of his information on the Voyage of the Beagle, and from this trip he wrote a book, Of the Origin of SpeciesRead MoreCharles Darwin s Theory Of Natural Selection1408 Words   |  6 Pagesoffspring benefit in result of the heritable genes and eventually through generations, the variants will be spread throughout the entire population (Montgomery, 2009). Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection can be supported through both fossils and homologous structures. A technique that supports Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection is fossils. A fossil is the remnant or imprint of a previous animal embedded in rock and preserved in petrified form (J, Castro, 2013). Fossils are used and areRead MoreCharles Darwin s Theory Of Evolution And Natural Selection1535 Words   |  7 PagesCharles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is based on a mechanism that he titled natural selection. Natural selection is, as defined by Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species, the method of being naturally selected for a better chance of survival in an environment. Evolution itself is the process by which organisms develop and adapt over generations. â€Å"†¦ it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any mannerRead MoreHow Did Thomas Malthus Inspire Charles Darwin s Theory Of Natural Selection? Essay1014 Words   |  5 PagesMalthus inspire Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection? Define natural selection. Thomas Malthus stated that the human population would eventually decrease significantly. His reasoning was that there would be a scarcity of food and other vital resources, leaving only the fittest of the species to survive. These â€Å"fittest† of the species would then pass on their traits to their offspring. Darwin used this is a firm foundation for his natural selection theory. Natural selection is the idea thatRead MoreEvolution Is The Biological Ideal For The History Of Life On Earth814 Words   |  4 Pagesof life on Earth. (Evolution fact and theory). It is the process by which an organism becomes more refined over time and in response to its environment. Evolution is about how we evolved; how Neanderthals and cave men evolved into Homo sapiens much like what we are today. It’s about how creatures evolved over time, dinosaurs becoming extinct through natural selection and how sharks have been alive for over 400 million years; it’s all about how natural s election chooses the best qualities and how theyRead MoreThe Theory Of Science And Technology1454 Words   |  6 Pageslive in today. Charles Robert Darwin was an English geologist and naturalist, best known for his significant addition to the science of evolution. He had a theory that all species have inherited traits over time from common ancestors, and in a partnership with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this pattern of evolution resulted from an action that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the natural selection involved in selectiveRead MoreThe Scientific Theory Of Science And Technology1449 Words   |  6 Pageslive in today. Charles Robert Darwin was an English geologist and naturalist, best known for his significant addition to the science of evolution. He had a theory that all species have inherited traits over time from common ancestors, and in a partnership with Alfred Russel Wallace int roduced his scientific theory that this pattern of evolution resulted from an action that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the natural selection involved in selective

The Case Of Brown V. Board Of Education Of Topeka

In 1954, The United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision with its ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The ruling was a monumental one for multiple reasons. Firstly, it was a major step in the Civil Rights Movement as it ended the legal use of â€Å"separate but equal† facilities, under the ruling that this violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. It gave African-Americans access to better schools, and also gave them a greater sense of dignity as they no longer could be legally forced to drink from different fountains or sit in separate sections. Another aspect of the decision that makes it so significant is the fact that it did the rare task of overturning a previous Supreme Court decision,†¦show more content†¦He believed that in order to understand law, one must first realize what law’s purpose is. He, like Thomas, argued that law’s purpose it to benefit society by creating a morally sound or der to human action and conduct. He detailed seven goods that he believed to be intrinsic and universal, and argued that laws should be enforced under the stipulation that they adhere to the enhancement of these goods, because they are what determines a fulfilling life. They are: life, knowledge, play, aesthetic experience, sociability, practical reasonableness, and religion. The goods that relate to the thesis of this paper the most are knowledge and sociability, as the result of the case has a direct benefit on them and is, therefore, moral and legitimate. Legal positivists, however, disagree that morality has any place in determining what legitimate law is. H. L. A. Hart based much of his theory on the previous legal positivist John Austin’s work. Austin believed that laws obtain their legitimacy from the recognition of a society’s members in the authority of their unruled ruler. This unruled entity that enforces laws with the backing of sanctions, is what Austin te rms the ‘sovereign.’ He believed that in order for a sovereign to exist it had to be habitually complied with by those it governs. What separates Austin’s theory from natural law theories is that he did not believe that laws had to be created or followed on the basis of morality. According to Austin’sShow MoreRelatedThe Case Of Oliver Brown V. The Board Of Education Of Topeka1991 Words   |  8 PagesThe question that this historical investigation and sources will be seeking to answer is: To what extent did the case of Oliver Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas further the progress of the civil rights movement in search of African-American equality? The first source being evaluated is â€Å"The Brown Decision: Its Long Anticipation and Lasting Influence.† This academic journal article originates from the Journal of Southern History, and is written by Linda Reed, an associate professorRead MoreBrown vs Board of Education600 Words   |  3 PagesThe Brown vs Board of Education as a major turning point in African American. Brown vs Board of Education was arguably the most important cases that impacted the African Americans and the white society because it brought a whole new perspective on whether â€Å"separate but equal† was really equal. The Brown vs Board of Education was made up of five different cases regarding school segregation. â€Å"While the facts of each case are different, the main issue in each was the constitutionality of state-sponsoredRead MoreOutline Of A Speech On History And Education846 Words   |  4 PagesSegregation in Education General Purpose: To Inform Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about one of the most notorious eras in politics and education. Thesis: â€Å"Brown V. The Board of Education of Topeka† and its reversal of the decision of â€Å"Plessy V. Ferguson† and the â€Å"Separate but Equal clause† is one of the most monumental, and impactful decision ever made. I. Introduction A. Attention Getter: B. Thurgood Marshall was responsible for rearguing the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case andRead MoreBrown V. Board Of Education830 Words   |  4 PagesBrown v. Board of Education The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case is a well-known case that went to the Incomparable Court for racial reasons with the leading body of training. The case was really the name given to five separate cases that were heard by the U.S. Preeminent Court concerning the issue of isolation in state funded schools. These cases were Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Briggs v. Elliot, Davis v. Board of Education of Prince Edward County (VA.), Boiling v. Sharpe,Read MoreBrown V. The Board Of Education1136 Words   |  5 PagesBrown v. The Board of Education Topeka, Kansas, 1950, a young African-American girl named Linda Brown had to walk a mile to get to her school, crossing a railroad switchyard. She lived seven blocks from an all white school. Linda’s father, Oliver, tried to enroll her into the all white school. The school denied her because of the color of her skin. Segregation was widespread throughout our nation. Blacks believed that the â€Å"separate but equal† saying was false. They felt that whites had more educationalRead MoreBrown V. Board Of Education Of Topeka1634 Words   |  7 PagesBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Cou rt s unanimous (9–0) decision stated that separate educational facilitiesRead MoreBrown vs. Board of Education: Case Study1745 Words   |  7 PagesBefore Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was taken to the Supreme Court, the ruling in earlier Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson stood. Plessy v. Ferguson established the separate but equal doctrine, which pervaded nearly every aspect of American life. One of the realms that Plessy v Ferguson expressly applied to was the area of public schools. Public schools in America could be racially segregated, based on the assumption that African-American schools were equal to their white counterpartsRead MoreThe Court Case that Changed the World: Brown v. Board of Education1078 Words   |  5 PagesBrown v. Board of Education is a story of triumph over a society where separating races simply based on appearances was the law. It is a story of two little girls who has to walk through a railroad switchyard in Topeka, Kansas in 1950 just to attend school. With lunch bags and backpacks in hand, they make their way to the black bus stop which is a distance of the tracks. They have to walk this distance, pass the buses filled with white children because they are unable to attend the nearby whiteRead MoreBrown V. Board Of Education 347 Us 4831438 Words   |  6 PagesBrown v. Board of Education 347 US 483 (1954) Jim Crow Laws As society changes, laws change as well to keep up with changes in some cases, the law are for the better of the majority, however, there have been several laws that have been enacted to impose inequality. On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court handed down its ruling in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Education of Topeka that Racial education of Topeka that racial segregation in public schoolsRead MorePlessy vs Ferguson678 Words   |  3 PagesPlessy v. Ferguson and Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education In the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson the Supreme Court decided that having †separate but equal† accommodations for Whites and Colored did not violate the 14th Amendment (Wolff, 1997). This allowed states to continue segregation as they saw fit. The Plessy v. Ferguson case was centered on the segregation of railroad cars but the final ruling supported that all â€Å"separate but equal† accommodations were allowed by the constitution and was

Organizational Behavior for Business Perspectives and Research

Question: Discuss about theOrganizational Behavior for Business Perspectives and Research. Answer: Introduction Organizational behavior gives emphasis on the behavior of the people when they interact with the groups. The organization gives focus on this, so that the goals and objectives can be easily attained. Organizational behavior is an effective approach which is implemented on the workers who are working in the organization. In this report the main concentration is given on the employees attitude and management. The discussion is also made on job satisfaction and organizational commitment by the employees. Impact of attitude which is based on work by considering the behavior Attitude gives emphasis on the behavior pattern of the workers or employees. If it is said that the attitude of a person is based on the behavior then it is considered as a wrong statement. Attitude is taken into consideration as a belief and feelings of a person towards the situation. The person faces many problems in various situations. If we take into consideration the example that the person wants to implement decentralization in the organization but for this the permission is required from the top level management. It is analyzed that the behavior can be changed with the change in situation (Shooshtarian, Ameli and Aminilari, 2013). Attitude is increased by the behavior of the person. If the workers behave in positive way, then they will attain the outcome in a positive manner. Positive behavior attracts more good things towards the person. Attitude is also helpful to convince other person. If you are indulge in selling a product, and then if you have a good attitude then you can induce the person to buy a product. Attitude also helps to decide the things in effective manner. If a person carries a positive behavior then it can be easy for him or her to decide about things in correct way (Farooq, Payaud, Merunka and Valette-Florence, 2014). There are many situations in which the motivation level of other person is enhanced in proper manner, by seeing the work of the person. The work can also be completed easily, if the person carries a positive attitude. Mostly it is analyzed in the organization that people have the feeling of competition between them, so they try to demotivate other people who are in the organiz ation. There are many situations in which the people who have negative behavior change themselves and carry a positive attitude. If one employee behaves in negative manner and from inside he has a positive attitude towards other people, then it can be seen that the attitude do not impact on the behavior of the person (Zohar, 2014). Need of Attitude for an individual Attitude is considered as an essential part which is required to attain the success for an individual. The attitudes are named as a negative attitude and positive attitude. The positive attitude gives enhances the level of motivation and helps the employees or the workers to give their best towards the work. By this the company can easily attain the goals and objectives of the organization (Jehanzeb, Rasheed, and Rasheed, 2013). Negative attitude spoils the surroundings and create conflicts between the individuals. It is very important for a person to carry a positive attitude, so that the goals and objectives of the organization can be attained properly. If a person carries a positive attitude at the workplace, then it is motivating other people and also it helps to attain the objective in effective manner (Togna, 2014). Employees who have appositive attitude are considered the most and good individuals of the organization. If the person behaves in a positive way then the direct imp act will be seen on the working pattern. The working pattern is enhanced efficiently. If the managers have a positive attitude, then the employees will be happy and also give their best towards the work. The problems of the employees or the workers can be solved efficiently. Attitude is changed from person to person and also by position to position. It is very essential for every person to carry a positive attitude with themselves. It will help to attain the success in easy manner. If a person is on the higher position then it is important to have a positive attitude, then only he or she will motivate their subordinates. If the manager has a positive attitude then it can lead to success of the organization and also help to enhance the level of motivation of the employees working in the organization. For the growth of the company, it is required to carry a positive attitude (Bhalerao and Kumar, 2016). Job satisfaction or Organizational Commitment If the candidate is satisfied with the job, then the outcome will be in a positive way. Positive attitude help the organization and the employees to attain the goals and objectives of the company. If the workers are dedicated towards their work, then it can be easily analyzed that they are satisfied with the job. Job satisfaction refers to the level of satisfaction which employees have for their work. It is very essential that the candidate should be motivated towards the working pattern. If the worker working in the organization are not satisfies then it is very difficult for the organization to attain the goals and objectives in proper way. Dissatisfaction is occurred from the negative attitude. If person possess negative, then it can be seen that they are not satisfied with the working pattern (Eren and Hisar, 2016). Organizational commitment gives emphasis to involve the workers in the organization. If the employee is satisfied with the company, then he or she will be dedicated and work efficiently to complete their goals and objectives. The organizational commitment is enhanced if person is satisfied with the working pattern of the company. The characteristics that describe the organizational commitment are: Affective, Continuance and normative commitment (Mowday, Porter and Steers, 2013). Affective commitment is concerned with the psychological concept of the person. Another is Continuance commitment in which the connection is with the cost that is taken into consideration at the time of leaving the company. The last is concerned with normative commitment in which the obligation gives direct impact on the nature and on the company. Job satisfaction is concerned with as an important skill that discloses all the skills that an individual possess. If the employee is not satisfied with the job, th en an individual will not be committed towards the company. So motivation is also an important aspect to enhance the organizational commitment and level of satisfaction of the employees (Canrinus, Helms-Lorenz, Beijaard, Buitink, and Hofman, 2012). Duty of the manager to enhance the commitment level It is analyzed that the obligation and the satisfaction of the company is connected with each other. It is seen that now a days the technology is so updated, that half of the workload is minimized. The technology is also important but human resources play a great role in conducting the day to day activities. Technology helps to save time but the work done by the individual is not replaced. If the company motivate the employees to work in proper way, then it can be easy to attain the goals and objectives of the organization in effective manner. The manager should use motivational theory so that the work can be done in easy way (Lamba and Choudhary, 2013). If the manager takes into consideration the theories, then the productivity of the employee can be enhanced. If the employees have the confidence of conducting the activities in proper way, then it can be easy to accomplish the goals and objectives of the organization. The managers should offer the incentives to the employees so that the work can be conducted effectively. The morale of employee is boosted when the goals and objectives of the organization are attained. It helps the managers to accomplish their targets properly (Brunetto, Teo, Shacklock and Farr?Wharton, 2012). The manager should see that the employees who are working in the organization feel comfortable and happy. If they are happy with their job, then the level of motivation can be enhanced. The manager should give focus on enhancing the responsibility and work satisfaction. The managers should provide happy environment for the workers or the employees, so that the activities that are conducted should be done with efficiency. The directors or managers should help the employees and listen to their problems, so that employee can feel motivated and happy with their work (Dhar, 2015).It is analyzed that if the higher authority give motivation to the employees working in the organization, then it help the employees or the workers to attain the monthly target in proper manner. Motivation is considered as an essential and very important part of the organization. If the employees are not motivated then it is very difficult for the organization to attain the goals and objectives. Motivation enhanc es the profitability and knowledge of the employees who are working in the organization. By taking into consideration the level of motivation the level of commitment between the employees can be enhanced efficiently and in proper way. References Bhalerao, H. and Kumar, S., 2016. Role of emotional intelligence in leaders on the commitment level of employees: A study in information technology and manufacturing sector in India.Business Perspectives and Research,4(1), pp.41-53. Brunetto, Y., Teo, S.T., Shacklock, K. and Farr?Wharton, R., 2012, Emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, well?being and engagement: explaining organisational commitment and turnover intentions in policing Human Resource Management Journal, vol. 22, no.4, pp.428-441. Canrinus, E.T., Helms-Lorenz, M., Beijaard, D., Buitink, J. and Hofman, A., 2012, Self-efficacy, job satisfaction, motivation and commitment: Exploring the relationships between indicators of teachers professional identity, European journal of psychology of education, vol.27, no. 1, pp.115-132. Dhar, R.L., 2015. Service quality and the training of employees: The mediating role of organizational commitment.Tourism Management,46, pp.419-430. Eren, H. and Hisar, F., 2016. Quality of work life perceived by nurses and their organizational commitment level.Journal of Human Sciences,13(1), pp.1123-1132. Farooq, O., Payaud, M., Merunka, D. and Valette-Florence, P., 2014. The impact of corporate social responsibility on organizational commitment: Exploring multiple mediation mechanisms.Journal of Business Ethics,125(4), pp.563-580. Jehanzeb, K., Rasheed, A. and Rasheed, M.F., 2013. Organizational commitment and turnover intentions: Impact of employees training in private sector of Saudi Arabia.International Journal of Business and Management,8(8), p.79. Lamba, S. and Choudhary, N., 2013. Impact of HRM practices on organizational commitment of employees.International Journal of Advancements in Research Technology,2(4), pp.407-423. Mowday, R.T., Porter, L.W. and Steers, R.M., 2013.Employeeorganization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover. Academic press. Shooshtarian, Z., Ameli, F. and Aminilari, M., 2013. The effect of labor's emotional intelligence on their job satisfaction, job performance and commitment.Iranian Journal of Management Studies,6(1), p.29. Togna, G., 2014. Does internal communication to generate trust always increase commitment? A study at Micron Technology.Corporate Communications: An International Journal,19(1), pp.64-81. Zohar, D., 2014. Safety climate: Conceptualization, measurement, and improvement.The Oxford handbook of organizational climate and culture, pp.317-334.

Political Science Research Paper on Canadian Multiculturalism Essay Example

Political Science Research Paper on Canadian Multiculturalism Essay Before starting the discussion on the complexity of correlation between Canadian multiculturalism and idea of the strong Canadian identity, it must be noted that such argument cannot be assessed in the absence of a clear understanding of political processes related to the strategy of nation-building. This qualification is particularly salient in the Canadian case, where the precarious nature of pan-Canadian identity has traditionally been in itself somewhat of a ‘national symbol’ due to the persistent existential question in Quebec. (Taylor, 1994) Indeed, as will be shown below, policymakers at the federal level charged with defining the bases of belonging in Canada have not only faced the challenges associated with the incorporation of diverse cultural identities but have been confronted with a national minority with established political institutions within a well-circumscribed territory. After careful research on the subject outlined, it is apparent that Canadian multiculturalism has been and continues to be a product of nation-building efforts and not a genuine commitment to the main tenets of strong Canadian identity. In other words, it is an element of a political strategy by the central state to forge a strong commitment, by its citizens, to Canada as a single and unified political community. Canadian multiculturalism should not be viewed as an example of the emerging ideology of multiculturalism and its implications for the redefinition of the legitimacy of nation-states in the case of polyethnic societies. We will write a custom essay sample on Political Science Research Paper on Canadian Multiculturalism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Political Science Research Paper on Canadian Multiculturalism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Political Science Research Paper on Canadian Multiculturalism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer â€Å"The main tenets of Canadian citizenship status are not that far off from those of the United States.† (Carens, 2000) Indeed, the place of culture in Canadian conceptions of citizenship is liberal – it is about building a nation based on universal principles. A model of cultural pluralism along the lines of Quebec interculturalism makes a more serious effort to balance the prerogatives of unity with the preservation and flourishing of minority cultures. The enduring problem confronting the Quebec model, one that would have to be taken into account in any future attempts at empirical verification, is the idea of competing interpretations of citizenship by those targeted for integration in the first place. (Carens, 2000) As Joppke makes clear, each society’s actual response to immigration and polyethnicity does not merely stem from an abstract model that is subsequently applied to the real world: â€Å"The concrete meaning of multiculturalism and its linkage to immigration differs significantly across these societies. These differences are conditioned by distinct traditions of nationhood, the specific historical contexts in which immigration has taken place, and the existing immigration regimes.† (Joppke, 1996) As such, the case of Quebec, although formally a province of Canada, nevertheless merits independent consideration as the Quebec state has negotiated broad authority over immigration. Moreover, Quebec constitutes a distinct political community with a well-defined collective cultural project that includes the integration of immigrants into that plan. Canada’s other provinces, by contrast, have been content to leave this policy area in the hands of the federal government. In short, Quebec should be viewed as a host society in its right, with its own historical and cultural development, its sense of nationhood, and a distinct discourse with regards to the general orientations and choices of society. There are indeed political imperatives at work in such policy outcomes. An assessment of Canadian multiculturalism cannot forgo the fact that in the final analysis, it is a policy and not an ‘ontological’ principle devoid of contingencies. (Taylor, 1994) The idea of multiculturalism must not be confused with the Canadian policy, as this is prone to stifling debate concerning the value of the policy in framing citizenship status. Returning to the normative backdrop for evaluating integration as developed above, it is clear that the Canadian strategy was related to both the goal of unity and the fostering of citizen dignity through the recognition of particular cultural affiliations. First, it seeks to achieve unity through a pan-Canadian nation-building project that emphasizes the primacy of individual rights in a constitutional Charter of Rights and a choice of language use, between French or English, across the country. Superimposed on individual rights is the official recognition of all constituent cultures, equally. Such attention, however, is largely a symbolic concession – the fabrication of an identity marker based on the voluntary adherence to particular cultural allegiances. In Weinfeld’s words: â€Å"In the absence of any consensus on the substance of Canadian identity or culture, multiculturalism fills a void, defining Canadian culture regarding the legitimate ancestral cultures which are the legacy of every Canadian: defining the whole through the sum of its parts.† (Weinfeld, 1981) By forging a collective identity throughout the country based on the ‘sum of its parts,’ it was hoped that the identity marker for unity could be universal – the equal recognition of all cultures, within a regime governed by individual rights and bilingualism. In this way, adherence to particular cultural attachments could be voluntary for all individuals, while at the same time claiming to ‘empower’ citizens of minority cultures through reductionist means – Canada’s symbolic order was to be based on the negation of any particular cultural definition. Webber argues that the Canadian response, by conceptualizing citizenship in such terms, has in effect altered social relations to the point of damaging the exercise of democracy. The Canadian political community in this sense is predicated on the judicialization of social interactions, to the detriment of the deliberative aspects of representative democracy. The idea of public space for citizen participation, reflection, and deliberation within the political community is reduced to a small forum of rights-bearers. Deliberative assemblies give way to the ‘legalization’ of social relations, preventing parliaments from being responsible for organizing social life and, ultimately, preventing citizens from identifying with others in the political community. (Webber, 1994) According to Kymlicka, the outcome of Canadian multiculturalism as a symbol for identification is analogous to the United States in its failure to differentiate between national minorities and polyethnic communities. The fundamental difference between the two is that the former strive for self-determination while the latter seek inclusion. Canada’s policy fails to address this distinction – multiculturalism becomes a mechanism to quell legitimate national aspirations – thus it fundamentally shares with the US model a certain homogenization, or universalization, of identity, albeit through cultural relativism. (Kymlicka, 1995) Kymlicka argues that the American reluctance to recognize minority nations is a direct result of its assimilationist model, a fear that such recognition will trickle down to polyethnic communities and thus undermine the bases for unity. (Kymlicka, 1995) Canada’s policy stems from similar fears. However, Canada’s response was to elevate the status of cultural groups to the same level as that of national minorities. Both are universal, both are bound by nation-building projects which stress unity, and both fail in any significant way to recognize territorially defined group-differentiated rights as a federal principle. (Kymlicka, 1995) As such, the Canadian response was not predicated on a genuine commitment to the ideology of multiculturalism as a pillar upon which to frame citizenship status. The goal was unity in the face of a national minority challenge. Quebec’s national identity was placed, constitutionally, alongside every other minority culture as a basis for identification. In Taylor’s terms, multiculturalism as such fails to appreciate the ‘deep diversity’ in Canada, in which difference can be recognized on tiered levels given particular groupings’ political aspirations and historical/territorial/linguistic realities. (Taylor, 1994) In adopting a strategy for unity similar to the American approach – uniformity from coast to coast based on universal principles – the Canadian policy in effect failed to recognize that national minorities, as opposed to polyethnic communities, seek to provide a ‘centre’ for identification, their pole of allegiance necessary for unity and common purpose. In other words, national identity in Quebec assumes a self-determining project for society. The community of reference for all citizens under the banner of multiculturalism, however, is Canada. Webber summarizes: â€Å"This ideology defines itself about the territorial state: it circumscribes a community of belonging to the state within a country – Canada.† (Webber, 1994) The Canadian constitution protects individuals from collective intrusions. It can be argued that the failure to achieve unity and common purpose is not inherent in the model of multiculturalism adopted. Rather, disunity is a product of federal dynamics – Canada is not a nation-state that can claim the status of a single and unified host society. As such, one can assess the policy independently of the Quebec question, which to a large extent may explain the motivation for the policy but not its actual effects as a model for integration. If we disregard the variable of multinationality in Canada, has multiculturalism been successful in integrating immigrants and ethnic groups? Indeed, if we begin with the assumption that Canada constitutes a single political community or host society, we can then proceed to evaluate the success of multiculturalism without considering disunity concerning the fragmentation of ‘national allegiance.’ (Carens, 2000) Unity can thus be conceptualized as the extent to which minority groups feel as though they belong to a single community called Canada, and participate in the general affairs of the larger society. As a response to critics who view multiculturalism as a divisive force in Canada, Will Kymlicka provides some empirical data that demonstrate the success of multiculturalism regarding the integration of minority cultures. (Kymlicka, 1995) Indeed, the line of criticism discussed does not challenge the integrative success of the policy. The claim is that due to the imperatives of nation-building, for unity in the face of the Quebec question, Canada chose to adopt a ‘lowest common denominator’ formula that rejected the recognition of culture as an aspect of belonging altogether. (Kymlicka, 1995) Trudeau’s ‘just society’ is predicated on the notion that an emotive attachment to a polity is destructive and backward, and that progress requires an emphasis on reason, which is universal, to serve as a guiding principle in any citizenship regime. If we look closely at Kymlicka’s indicators for integration, however, it may be argued that although integration has been rather successful, it came at the expense of the recognition and preservation of minority cultures – which in the final analysis is the defining feature of ideological multiculturalism. The Canadian model operates along the primacy of individual rights in a constitutional Charter of Rights, with an interpretive clause for the recognition of diverse cultural affiliations. The interpretive clause is the only element of differentiation from American assimilation. There is no democratic imperative for the identification of diverse minority cultures besides a legal/procedural provision that may be invoked if the minority group in question chooses to do so. This is a key conceptual distinction between the Canadian and Quebec models, and it stems from the nature of the expectations of democracy itself. Public space is based on individual participation via a bill of rights. The success of minority groups within indicators such as ‘naturalization rates’, ‘political participation’ (including the institutional avenues of participation), ‘official language competence’, ‘intermarriage rates’ and lack of territorial enclaves of cultural groups are addressed to those critics who view multiculturalism as divisive to the forging of a strong Canadian identity. (Carens, 2000) They do not speak to the explicit concern for the preservation and flourishing of minority cultures within the political community – the capacity of such groups to participate and affect the public affairs of the country without shedding their particular group identities. The debate itself thus takes place outside the imperatives of ideological multiculturalism. In other words, these criteria may very well be addressing a regime committed to assimilation. The fact that Canadian identity – the way citizens relate to each other and the state in determining societal preferences – is predicated on such terms implies that there is no public culture on which minority cultures can make their mark. Again, multiculturalism in Canada does not reflect the recognition of diverse cultures; instead, to be blunt, it refers to the denial of religion altogether in defining the limits and confines of public space.